The infestation of the shot hole borer beetle has spread to multiple places in Western Cape and poses a threat to indigenous trees throughout South Africa.
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Polyphagous Shot Hole Borer is a tiny beetle that feeds on living trees. It's difficult to see the beetle. The females are black in color and (1.8-2.5) mm long and males also small but brown and wingless. The males are 1.5-1.7 mm and are less common than females.

The beetle needs breeding and feeding space and enters a tree through the bark, creating breeding and feeding lines, with a layer of spores of the fusarium fungus. The shot hole borer beetle has a symbiotic relationship with this fungus because it is the beetle's primary food source. To reproduce and eat fusarium fungus, the beetle digs tunnels deep within the infected tree. The beetle does not kill the tree but the fungus (Fusarium Euwallacea) does. The fungus spreads from the tunnel into the tree, obstructing the vascular system of the tree. This fungus is the main causes of tree wilting.

The Shot Hole borer beetle is native to Southeast Asia. It arrived in South Africa in 2017 and has caused some environmental damage. It reproduces in both exotic and native tree species. Outside of its native habitat it appears to be much more aggressive. 

The symptoms of infected trees differ from one tree species to another, and there are numerous signs that a tree is infected. Some of these indicators could be sawdust collecting on the bark and around the base of the tree. Certain tree species may experience leaking of liquid and gum from beetle holes. Most people will not notice the problem until the tree dies. As a result, the wood from the dead infested tree must be processed to kill the beetle inside; otherwise, the surviving beetles will move to nearby trees and spread the infection. You have a few options for dealing with the dead wood. If possible, solarizing an infested wood pile and burn the wood right away. Alternatively, one can also chip the wood.

We can't completely stop the infestation of shot hole borers, but we can treat and manage it to lessen its impact and spread. If you grow trees and observe tree wilting,  try to determine whether the symptoms are caused by Shot Hole Borer. If a tree is heavily infested, it should be cut down and destroyed. If the main stem is unaffected, infested branches can be removed. Dump wood at a designated dumping site or inquire with the municipality. If you chip the wood finer than 5cm, you can make compost or burn it on-site. Note that some beetles will flee if the wood becomes hot or there is smoke so make sure to contain the burn area and burn at a high enough temperature. ​

As we approach the festive season when we all like to make braais at our holiday destination, please do your part and DO NOT MOVE FIREWOOD around, especially if you live in an infested area. We recommend that you rather buy invasive firewood at your local holiday destination and thereby supporting the local rural economies and helping to reduce the spread of invasive vegetation and the shot hole borer beetle. Make sure that the wood that you buy is invasive and that it is locally obtained. 

Note: All guests houses in the Grootvadersbosch Conservancy, including Cape Nature, do not allow external firewood to be brought in. 

Let us do everything we can to protect our forests and control the Shot Hole beetle infestation. 

References
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https://greenpop.org/polyphagous-shot-hole-borer-beetle/
https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/pshb
https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/crops/field-crops/protecting-south-africas-trees-from-the-shot-hole-borer/ ​

The fynbos biome is fire driven which is why frequent fires can occur. The GVB Conservancy includes mountain fynbos, semi forested areas and lowland fynbos which is found south of the Langeberg mountain range. In the conservancy, we have had to deal with many fires which have shaped our perspective on fire, and we have learnt so much about the risks and how to manage them. Fires can start from powerlines, lighting, even falling rocks so one must always be prepared. This blog shares some of what we have learnt about fire and fire management.

​Fire, a disturbance or a prerequisite
Fires are very important but can be an unwelcome interruption in people’s livelihoods, both socially and economical (Pereira et al., 2012). Fire can destroy vegetation, buildings, and crops or endanger human lives (Cowling and Richardson,1995). Depending on where and how they burn, fires can be either harmful or beneficial (Hardesty et al.,2005).

Why fires are important in the natural environment?
Fynbos
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​Fire is necessary in fynbos ecosystem (Manning, 2007) (Pyne,1990). It is a natural and normal process in fynbos and some of the lifecycles in this biome are shaped by fire. (Cowling and Richardson,1995). Fynbos is a fire adapted vegetation and if regular fires do not occur most fynbos types would get dominated by woody shrubs and trees (Manning, 2007). They say fire is the engine that drives the fynbos cycle, and periodic fires are not only an integral, but an essential aspect of fynbos ecosystem (Manning, 2007). Fynbos has more fires than any other type of heathland on the planet. This is due to the severe flammability of the dried, frequently intricated branches, bushes, and restoids, and it is not common to come across strands of fynbos vegetation that are older than 20 years (Manning, 2007).

Without fire in fynbos, there is a chance that the fynbos plants do not produce offspring, resulting in biodiversity loss. If fire is being excluded from fynbos for too long many of the landscapes would become densely infested with limited species of forest/thicket shrubs or trees (Cowling and Richardson,1995). Different vegetation types experience different fire regimes depending on the source of ignition (e.g. lightning), the fuel load (the amount and arrangement of flammable vegetation) and the climatic conditions. Most fynbos communities burn every 12 to 15 years. This frequency is determined by the rate at which the fynbos grows, or the way fuel loads accumulate after the previous fire. (Cowling and Richardson,1995).

Alien Vegetation
Goliath Highburg (Oom Twakkie) mentioned that alien invasion is a larger fire threat than fynbos. This is because the wood of alien trees is hard and burns for much longer, while fynbos burns out quicker. In the long run, the removal of invasive plants will greatly reduce your risk of destructive fires. The veld ages across Grootvadersbosch differ and depend on the natural vegetation and land use. Veld that is older and has more woody material will have more fuel load and will therefore be more likely to burn and will burn for longer with more intensity.

Renosterveld
Renosterveld is at elevated risk of extinction. With 4% of renosterveld remaining in the Overberg, management of these areas is so important and proper management is needed to control some of the threats that renosterveld is facing. (Curtis.,2013). 

The following rules apply for ecological prescribed burns in renosterveld, described by the Overberg Renosterveld Conservation Trust, (Curtis.,2013).

1. Don't burn too often. Keep in mind that how often you burn will vary depending on the type of veld and annual rainfall. Burning every 10-15 years is recommended.
2. Avoid fires through thickets or open regions. These microhabitats are unlikely to be fire adapted and would only burn naturally in extreme circumstances.
3. The best season to burn is during summer (late summer) or early autumn (February/March). When veld is very old, one can burn in April.
4. For burning renosterveld, just like all areas, you need a permit that will include a map of the area you want to burn (Curtis.,2013).

Controlled burning also known as Prescribed burn

Prescribed burning or controlled burning is a management tool used in terms of resource management objectives (DiTomaso et.,al 2006)( Fernandez and Botelho, 2003). It’s ignited by a person and confined to a specific area (Teie and Pool, 2009).The objective of a prescribed fire is to establish and maintain plant life conditions (Teie and Pool, 2009). A prescribed burn needs to be managed carefully (Teie and Pool, 2009).

Before one starts a burn, it is important that you have infrastructure in place such as firefighting equipment, water, firebreaks, and manpower plus up to date weather forecasts (Bothma and du Toit.,2016). 

Prepare well.

A fair amount of planning goes into the controlled burning of areas. This includes:

• The areas must be mapped properly and according to vegetation types.
• Practical routes need to be pointed out. The boundaries of the controlled burns should be pointed out on the map.
• Alien vegetation should be identified and mapped.

Don’t forget that one should never believe that a fire is out until you are very sure. Continue to mop up the fire!

How to prepare for fire and avoid uncontrolled burns?
Firebreaks
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Firebreaks are frequently included in a management plan to prevent a fire hazard. A firebreak is usually a natural barrier used to put out flames and create a working control line (Teie, 2003).
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A word with Goliath Highburg (Oom Twakkie) who is responsible for fire management in the conservancy, and he says the following: ‘‘Firebreaks are advantageous, I would advise when constructing a firebreak, make it ankle high, so that it doesn’t cause erosion'', which will have a bad environmental impact later and that’s one of the disadvantages of firebreaks. Other negative effects that can be caused by firebreaks include soil becoming more acidic, compared to grassland soil for example and other aspects such as lower nitrogen count in the soil (O’connor., et.al 2004).

Every landowner on whose land a wildfire may originate, burn, or spread must create and maintain a firebreak on his or her side of the boundary between his or her land and any adjoining land, according to Section 12 of the National Wild and Forest Fire Act. The purpose of the firebreak will determine the type of construction that should be used. The aim of the fire breaks could be to (Teie and Pool.,2009):

• Avoid fire from spreading with either controlled or uncontrolled fires.
• Create a point where fire may be extinguished.
• Create a place where back burns may be started.
• Create a point of attack for a fire
• Create a safe access point to a fire

Firebreaks require the landowner to create and maintain firebreaks along their property's perimeter. The landowner must notify the adjacent landowner and the FPA of his plan to burn if the firebreak is to be maintained by burning.
Planning to burn. A plan should be prepared for even the simplest burn. If it's a low-risk burn, a checklist may suffice, but if it's a higher-risk burn, you'll need to think carefully about the place and put your plan in writing. You can create a burning plan if you want to do a large, controlled burn (Teie and Pool.,2009).
 
Some of the questions that one must think about and answer prior to burning include:

​1. How much manpower do you have?. The amount of labour depends on the size of your burn and the risk of runaway fires. Most importantly the bakkie sakkie will require a driver and an operator. In addition, several experienced persons (6-10) on the ground to light and extinguish the fires.

2. What equipment do you have for undertaking the burn? You will need a bakkie sakkie (water tank on the back of your vehicle), drip torches with petrol/diesel mix. Spray backpacks, beaters, rakes, have enough food, drink and first aid kits available for the fire team.

​3. Is your team wearing the required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)? Head protection, such as a hard hat, and leather or other robust material boots are types of PPE.  Eye protection (goggles) is necessary  and a balaclava for the face. Leather gloves should be available. Fire-retardant and acid-resistant overalls and fire-retardant endurance pants are needed, along with headlamps and torches.

​4) Where are the water refilling points? Consider the location of your dams and water tanks for both routine and emergency filling for the bakkie sakkie. Ensure that you have access to water stations so that you can ensure a safe rotation for the bakkies sakkie, ensuring that the fire line is never without backup from water tankers.

5) Do you have the necessary burn permits? A permit from your local fire protection association is required. A maps of the region that you want to burn is usually included. Have you gathered the information you'll need to make your burning plan? Have you prepared the necessary background to inform your burning plan?.

6) Are you looking for help from a working on fire, FPA, Cape nature, or the conservancy with your burn? If you are part of a protected area, or are a stewardship site, you may be able to get help with your controlled burn.

7) What is the burn's ignition point, and which wind direction will you need to light it? Before continuing with the rest of the burn, look at your veld and consider your ignition point, as well as where your danger zones are and how you'll burn them to be safe.

Why join the FPA.

A FPA (Fire Protection Association) is there to protect, Prevent, manage, and extinguish veld fires. A FPA develops a fire management strategy and plan for the area; establish rules and regulations, provides training, appoints a fire protection officer and can take action to suppress unwanted fires.
Benefits of being a member of the FPA are 1) in civil actions the landowner is not automatically assumed negligent if a fire leaves their property and 2) the landowner may be exempt from making firebreaks on all their property boundaries. 
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The fire protection officer has important duties. At the conservancy Goliath Highburg is the fire officer and the duties that he performs are to control firefighting activities, enforce rules and regulations of the FPA, inspect members land for compliance and to provide fire protection training.
All GVB conservancy members must also be a member of a local FPA . 

We hope that this information will help you prepare for the fire season ahead. Lets hope that it is a fire free season!


References

Botha, N., 2020. Agriculture vs. conservation: how Grootvadersbosch Conservancy finds the common ground. South African Geographical Journal, 102(3), pp.372-388.

Cowling, R.M. and Richardson, D.M., 1995. Fynbos: South Africa's unique floral kingdom. Fernwood Press.
Manning,J., 2007. Field guide to Fynbos

Curtis, O.E., 2013. Management of critically endangered renosterveld fragments in the Overberg, South Africa.
DiTomaso, J.M., Brooks, M.L., Allen, E.B., Minnich, R., Rice, P.M. and Kyser, G.B., 2006. Control of invasive weeds with prescribed burning. Weed technology, 20(2), pp.535-548.

Fernandes, P.M. and Botelho, H.S., 2003. A review of prescribed burning effectiveness in fire hazard reduction. International Journal of wildland fire, 12(2), pp.117-128.

Hardesty, J., Myers, R. and Fulks, W., 2005, January. Fire, ecosystems, and people: a preliminary assessment of fire as a global conservation issue. In The George Wright Forum (Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 78-87). George Wright Society.

Kraaij, T. and van Wilgen, B.W., 2014. Drivers, ecology, and management of fire in fynbos. Fynbos: Ecology, evolution, and conservation of a megadiverse region, pp.47-72.
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O'connor, T.G., Uys, R.G. and Mills, A.J., 2004. Ecological effects of firebreaks in the montane grasslands of the southern Drakensberg, South Africa. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 21(1), pp.1-9.

Parker, D., 2016. Game Ranch Management, J. du P. Bothma & JG du Toit (Eds.): book review. African Journal of Wildlife Research, 46(2), p.144.

Pereira, Paulo, Pranas Mierauskas, Xavier Úbeda, Jorge Mataix-Solera, and Artemi Cerda. "Fire in protected areas-the effect of protection and importance of fire management." Environmental 

Pyne, S.J., 1990. Fire conservancy: The origins of wildland fire protection in British India, America, and Australia. In Fire in the Tropical Biota (pp. 319-336). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Raitt, G.R., 2005. Themeda triandra renosterveld in the Heidelberg district (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University).

Research, Engineering and Management 59, no. 1 (2012): 52-62.

Southern Cape fire protection 2019.

Teie, W.C., 2003. Fire manager's handbook on veld and forest fires: strategy, tactics and safety. South African Institute of Forestry.

Teie, W.C. and Pool, C., 2009. Fire manager’s handbook on veld and forest fires. Strategy, tactics and safety-2nd Edition. Menlo Park: Southern African Institute of Forestry.

​A few weeks ago, the Conservancy staff attended the annual fynbos forum which was hosted online. Our manager, Aileen Anderson, was presenting at the conference and so we were all able to participate in the on line conference. 

​During the conference, Intaba environmental services gave an informative presentation about their nursery, and what caught our attention was the palmiet plant (Prionium serratum) and how they rehabilitate unnaturally degraded riverbanks.

​We found the fynbos forum, especially the rehabilitation aspects, to be very interesting. We are currently in the process of relocating and establishing a new nursery at the new offices. As the nursery is established, we will apply new concepts and methods to cultivate trees and vegetation for our restoration activities.

​As part of the fynbos forum, Twakkie and Zaniel went on a fieldtrip to Intaba environmental services (Tulbagh)  This allowed us to experience and engage more with the team We came away with so much knowledge that we can now apply and put into practice within the conservancy. 

​Most importantly, the cultivation and use of palmiet which we will discuss in this blog.

Characteristics of Prionium serratum (Palmiet)
The leaves remain encircle (Boucher, 2004) which means that the stems of the palmiet plant branch, and the remains of the previous stems protect the plant from injury during floods, when rocks and stones migrate down rivers and can smash the stems (Boucher, 2004). The plant has dense stems that seem to be a grouping of separate plants but are really interconnected stems, usually originating from one initial plant through vegetative reproduction. The grey- green, shaped pointed leaves can be 1.2 meters long and 30-40 meters wide, crowed together in rossetes at the end of the stems (Boucher, 2004) (September to February) (Boucher, 2004).

​Palmiet usually grows about 2 m high and is found from Western Cape to Kwazulu Natal in marshy areas, streams, rivers, and riverbanks and large dense strands http://pza.sanbi.org/prionium-serratum. Palmiet grows in swamps and riverbanks, whereas palmiet wetlands are wetlands where palmiet grows and qualify as ecosystems that reduce floodwater erosive damage.

The many benefits of palmiet in the ecosystem

Palmiet is a fascinating plant that acts as an ecosystem architect (Rebelo, 2019). The plant is excellent in providing habitat for fish, birds, and insects (Boucher, 2004). Palmiet stabilizes riverbanks from erosion http://pza.sanbi.org/prionium-serratum. Palmiet wetlands have built up layers of peat and organic material with high layers of carbon content Palmiet wetland conservation | Farmer's Weekly (farmersweekly.co.za). Palmiet wetlands can improve water quality because the thick layers of palmiet act as a pure carbon filter for the water. The leaves of the palmiet act as a sieve, retaining chemicals and bacteria in the wetland. The plant has a thick root that keeps the plant from being ripped out during heavy rains. The flatness of palmiet allows the water to slow down. Palmiet wetlands act as a giant sponge, collecting water during the rainy season and releasing it during the dry season. Wetlands also slow surface flow, allowing groundwater aquifers to recharge.

​Rapid population growth and expansion of human activities is increasing the amount of waste and pollution (Naidoo,2005) and is endangering wetlands. Changes to wetlands can have far-reaching consequences (Boucher, 2004). Palmiet (Prionium serratum) is declining in some habitats because of degradation, of habitat from overgrazing and frequent fires http://pza.sanbi.org/prionium-serratum. Other threats to wetland or palmiet wetlands may be additional water abstraction as well as pollution and invasive alien plant infestation (Branch,1984) (Rebelo, 2019).

​The removal of palmiet leads to the damage of wetlands. The absence of palmiet causes greater flood damage, more severe erosion, and dam silting. If palmiet is removed, water may become contaminated because of the filter provided by the thick layer of palmiet that is no longer present. If palmiet is taken out of rivers, open water bodies will result in high evaporation and water loss. The absence of Palmiet results in greater flood damage, severe erosion and silting up of dams Palmiet wetland conservation | Farmer's Weekly (farmersweekly.co.za). 

It is a myth that palmiet clogs rivers and impedes water flow. Palmiet is said to clog streams by filling them in their natural state. This assumption may be based on the tendency of immersed stems, anchored on the riverbank's borders to bend outwards into the channels as water levels fall during dry spells (Boucher, 2004). It may therefore appear as if palmiet is invading the rivers, even though the stems will normally fold back against the banks when water levels rise and flow velocities increase (Boucher, 2004).

The best time to propagate this plant is during the winter months. The plant can be reproduced and developed from divisions, and because it is a semi-aquatic plant, it requires a moderately damp environment to thrive. http://pza.sanbi.org/prionium-serratum. This plant can be planted and nurtured in our nurseries.

In terms of healthy wetlands, the conservancy runs an initiative that involves alien removal along rivers to improve the quality and quantity of water. Other monitoring programs include river monitoring as part of GASPP (Grootvadersbosch Aquatic Species Protection Project), which includes the SASS (South African Scoring System) and fish monitoring. This monitoring study also allows us to investigate other features of the rivers, such as water quality, pH, and temperature etc.
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We can all work together to promote awareness and maintain our wetlands. Palmiet is a crucial species to protect in our rivers systems. We can work together to raise awareness and communicate the wonders of this wetland plant.   
 
Please leave a comment if you have any other thoughts or suggestions.

References

Boucher, C. and Withers, M., 2004. Palmiet. Veld & Flora, 90(1), pp.26-28.

Branch, GM & Day, J.A., 1984. Ecology of southern African estuaries: part XIII: the Palmiet River estuary in the south-western Cape. African Zoology, 19(2), pp.63-77.

http://pza.sanbi.org/prionium-serratum

Naidoo, K., 2005. The Anthropogenic impacts of Urbanization and Industrialisation on the Water quality, Ecology and Health status of the Palmiet River catchment in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal (Doctoral dissertation).

Palmiet wetland conservation | Farmer's Weekly (farmersweekly.co.za)
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Rebelo, A.J., Morris, C., Meire, P. and Esler, K.J., 2019. Ecosystem services provided by South African palmiet wetlands: A case for investment in strategic water source areas. Ecological Indicators, 101, pp.71-80.